Introduction Inthe1960s,Nigeria’sagriculturalsectorwasthemostimportantintermsofitscontributionstodomesticproduction,employmentandforeignexchangeearnings.Nigeriabeforethediscoveryofcrudeoilinthe1950’swastheworld’slargestproducerofoilpalm(Elaeisguineensis)apositionnowoccupiedbyMalaysia[1].Oilpalmproductionwasoneofthevitalareasofagriculturethatattractedtheforeignexchangeearningscontributing48percentofGDPbetween1980and1982andfallingto45percentbytheendofthe1990’s[2].However,thefigureofoilpalm’scontributiondeclinedtoabout40percentofGDPand2percentoftotalexportearningsbytheendofthe1970s.Thisdwindlingtrendintheoilpalmproductionisalwaysattributedtothediscoveryofcrudeoilandgovernmentsshiftofattentionfromtheagriculturalsectortocrudeoilexploration.Thisassertioncannotbe overlooked but drawsattentionto the fact that otherareasthatarepotentialfactorstoimprovethe dwindlingtrend, needstobeaddressed.Areassuchastheefficiencyoftheextensionservicedelivery,laginthedisseminationofinnovationsfromtheresearchstationstothefarmers,genderissuesinagricultureandproperfarmereducationnecessaryfortheadoptionofimprovedtechnologiesareimportanttobeaddressed.Thisreviewthereforedrawsattentiontogendersocio-economicattributesthatareimportanttobeconsideredintheadoptionprocessinagricultureespeciallyasitrelatestooilpalmproduction. Oilpalmproductionpassesthroughactivitiesthatrequiretheeffortsandcollaborationofbothmenandwomenformaximumoutput.Theroleofbothgenderscouldbeeithercomplimentaryorsupportivetoachievehighproductivity.Accordingto[3],genderisasociallyconstructedroledifferencesbetweenmenandwomenforthepurposeofallocatingpowers,duties,status,responsibilitiesandroleinanygivensocialcontext.Genderisaresultofsocializationintoamanorwomanrolewhichascribescertainbehavioursaccordingtosocio-culturalnormsforone’ssex[4].Accordingto[5],genderdealswiththesocialrelationshipbetweenmenandwomenandhowtheserelationshipsarenegotiatedintheproductionofgoodsandservices.ThesocialrelationshipbetweenmenandwomenwillplayoutandcomplementeachotherintheadoptionofimprovedoilpalmtechnologiessuchastheadoptionoftheTeneraoilpalmvarietywhichisahybridofthePisiferaandtheDuravarieties.Theconsiderationofgendersocio-economicattributesthereforebecomesimperative. 2.LiteratureReview Thissectionprovidesa reviewofrelatedliteratureongenderrelatedconcepts,genderinagricultureandsocioeconomicattributesofgenderandhowitinfluencestheadoptionofimprovedoilpalmproductiontechnologiesinNigeria 2.1TheConceptofGender Accordingto[6],theconceptofgenderincludestheexpectationsheldaboutthecharacteristics,aptitudesandlikelybehaviourofwomenandmen.Genderrolesandexpectationsarelearnedandcanchangeovertimeandvarywithinandbetweencultures.Systemsofsocialdifferentiationsuchaspoliticalstatus,class,ethnicity,physicalandmentaldisability,ageandmore,modifygenderroles[7].Theconceptofgenderisvitalbecause,appliedtosocialanalysis;itrevealshowwomen’ssubordinationormen’sdominationissociallyconstructed.Assuch,thesubordinationcanbechangedorendedUNESCO[6].Genderisnotbiologicallypredeterminednorisitfixedforever.Sexdescribesthebiologicaldifferencesbetweenmenandwomen,whichareuniversalanddeterminedatbirthandtechnicallydifferentfromgender. Gendersystemsareinstitutionalizedthrougheducationsystems,politicalandeconomicsystems,legislation,cultureandtraditions.Inutilizingagenderapproach,thefocusisnotonindividualwomenandmenbutonthesystemwhichdeterminesgenderrolesandresponsibilities,accesstoandcontroloverresources,anddecision-makingpotentials.Itisalsoimportanttoemphasizethattheconceptofgenderisnotinterchangeablewithwomen.Genderreferstobothwomenandmen,andtherelationsbetweenthem. 2.2TheConceptofAdoption Adoptionmeansthatapersondoessomethingdifferentlythanwhattheyhadpreviously(purchaseoruseanewproduct,acquireandperformanewbehavior,etc.)done.Thekeytoadoptionisthatthepersonmustperceivetheidea,behaviour,orproductasneworinnovative.Itisthroughthisthatdiffusionispossible[8].Adoptionofanewidea,behavior,orproduct(innovation)doesnothappensimultaneouslyinasocialsystem;ratheritisaprocesswherebysomepeoplearemoreapttoadopttheinnovationthanothers.Researchershavefoundthatpeoplewhoadoptaninnovationearlyhavedifferentcharacteristicsthanpeoplewhoadoptaninnovationlater.Whenpromotinganinnovationtoatargetpopulation,itisimportanttounderstandthecharacteristicsofthetargetpopulationthatwillhelporhinderadoptionoftheinnovation.Therearefiveestablishedadoptercategories,andwhilethemajorityofthegeneralpopulationtendstofallinthemiddlecategories,itisstillnecessarytounderstandthecharacteristicsofthetargetpopulation. 2.3GenderandTechnologyAdoption Inaddressingtheinfluenceofgenderintheadoptionofagriculturaltechnology,itispertinenttoconsiderthematerialfactorsthatcouldpossiblyinfluencegenderinmakingthedecisiontoadoptorrejectaninnovation.Genders’accesstopowerandauthority,andcontroloversuchfactorsmaydeterminetheextentofadoption.Suchmaterialfactorsasaccesstoland,creditfacility;accesstootherinputsasfertilizer,labourandextensioncontactarevitalintheadoptiondecision.Thefemininegender,mostoftenthannot,havelessaccesstothesematerialfactorscomparedtothemasculinegender.Accordingto[9],womeninNigeriaformanactiveandreservelabourforcebutrarelyownthemeansofproduction.Furthermore,[10]reportedthatmenandwomenmaizefarmersinGhanadonotenjoyequalaccesstolandandtoagriculturalextensionservices.Thissuggeststhatdisparityinthegenders’ownershipandaccesstotheseproductionresourcesmayrestrictadoptionofinnovationbythefemininegender. GenderrolesarecrucialforagriculturaldevelopmentandtheattainmentoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).Thedefinitionofgenderusedinthisresearchistheeconomic,social,political,andculturalattributesandopportunitiesassociatedwithbeingmanorwoman.ThisreviewalsousesthedefinitionintheGlobalMonitoringReport2007ongender,whichmeansequalaccesstothe“opportunitiesthatallowpeopletopursuealifeoftheirownchoosingandtoavoidextremedeprivationsinoutcomes,”highlightinggenderequalityinrights,resources,andvoice[11].Genderissuesmustbeaddressedindevelopmentstudiesforvariousandobviousreasons.First,genderdimensioniscrucialforeconomicreasonsandfromtheefficiencypointofview.Thisisespeciallytrueintheagriculturesector,wheregenderinequalitiesinaccesstoandcontroloverresourcesarepersistent,underminingasustainableandinclusivedevelopmentofthesector.Second,equityordistributionalissuesarerelatedtogenderdifferencesinoutcomes. 3.GenderSocio-economicAttributesandAdoptionofImprovedOilPalmTechnologies Socio-economiccharacteristicsexplaintheattributes(age,sex,householdsize,education,literacy,income,farmsize,landownership,maritalstatus,farmingexperienceetc)ofthefarmerthathaveinfluenceontheactivitiesofthefarmersintheirlocalenvironment.Asidesex,allotherattributesofthefarmerareacquireddirectlyorindirectlyandaresubjecttochangeovertime.Socio-economiccharacteristicslikeeducation,income,farmsize,landownershipandmaritalstatuspositsanindividualinaruralcommunityasresponsible,respectable,influentialandhasthepotentialsofbringingpositivechange.Examiningthesocioeconomiccharacteristicsoffarmersinaresearchgivestheresearcheraclearprofileanda betterperspectiveofthefarmersthatshouldnotbeneglectedaspossibleinfluentialfactors.Theybringtotheforethebackground,affiliations,dispositionsandorientationsofthefarmerswhoarethemajorfocusofagriculturalresearch.Socio-economiccharacteristicsinagenderstudywillpointoutareasofdisparityingenderissuesthatneedspecificattention. Insomeculture,womenarenotallowedtoownsomeinputresourcesasagainsttheirmencounterparts.Accordingto[12],womeninArochukwuLocalGovernmentAreaofAbiaStatearenotallowedtoownoilpalmplantation.Thisthereforepreventsmostlywomeninthatareafromowninglandandotherresources.Thissinglesocialmisjudgmentleadstothelooseofvaluablecontributionsandbenefitsthatwouldhaveaccruedtothecommunityifbothmenandwomenaregivenequalfreedomtoexerciseandexploretheirpotentials. 3.1AgeandAdoption Ageisanimportantattributeofthefarmer.Agemeasuredbythenumberofyearsfrombirthafarmerhasspentalive,influencesthelevelofthoughtanddisposition.Anolderfarmerisexpectedtohavemoreexperienceinfarmingandthereforethepossibilityofacceptinginnovation.Theageofthefarmerwillalsodisposehimtoacquisitionofmaterialresources.Intheirreport,[13]revealedthatthemeanageofthefarmersinoilpalmproductioninNigeriawasabout45yearsandexplainedthatthismaybeattributedtothefactthatoilpalmproductionislandintensiveandonlyolderfarmersmayhaveacquiredthesizeoflandneededforitsproduction.Inseparatereports[14]and[15]confirmedthatNigerianfarmersarewithintheagebracketof40-60years.Thiscouldadverselyaffectthelevelofoutputbecauseoftheinactivenatureoftheelderly.Theyfurthernotedthatyoungfarmersareneededonfarmsbecauseagriculturalproductionisenergydemandingespeciallyoilpalmproduction.[16],assertedthattheabilityofafarmertotakeriskandbeinnovativedecreaseswithage.Thisimpliesthatyoungerfarmersbyvirtueoftheirstrengthandabilitywillhavehigherprospectforincreasedadoptionoftechnologyandenhancedproductivity. Accordingto[17],agricultureinAfricaisdominatedbyoldpeoplewhomheexplainedlackenthusiasmandstrengthwhichresultstothemengagingintraditionalsubsistencecultivationthatgivespoorreturns.…