Introduction Inthe1960s,Nigeria’sagriculturalsectorwasthemostimportantintermsofitscontributionstodomesticproduction,employmentandforeignexchangeearnings.Nigeriabeforethediscoveryofcrudeoilinthe1950’swastheworld’slargestproducerofoilpalm(Elaeisguineensis)apositionnowoccupiedbyMalaysia[1].Oilpalmproductionwasoneofthevitalareasofagriculturethatattractedtheforeignexchangeearningscontributing48percentofGDPbetween1980and1982andfallingto45percentbytheendofthe1990’s[2].However,thefigureofoilpalm’scontributiondeclinedtoabout40percentofGDPand2percentoftotalexportearningsbytheendofthe1970s.Thisdwindlingtrendintheoilpalmproductionisalwaysattributedtothediscoveryofcrudeoilandgovernmentsshiftofattentionfromtheagriculturalsectortocrudeoilexploration.Thisassertioncannotbe overlooked but drawsattentionto the fact that otherareasthatarepotentialfactorstoimprovethe dwindlingtrend, needstobeaddressed.Areassuchastheefficiencyoftheextensionservicedelivery,laginthedisseminationofinnovationsfromtheresearchstationstothefarmers,genderissuesinagricultureandproperfarmereducationnecessaryfortheadoptionofimprovedtechnologiesareimportanttobeaddressed.Thisreviewthereforedrawsattentiontogendersocio-economicattributesthatareimportanttobeconsideredintheadoptionprocessinagricultureespeciallyasitrelatestooilpalmproduction. Oilpalmproductionpassesthroughactivitiesthatrequiretheeffortsandcollaborationofbothmenandwomenformaximumoutput.Theroleofbothgenderscouldbeeithercomplimentaryorsupportivetoachievehighproductivity.Accordingto[3],genderisasociallyconstructedroledifferencesbetweenmenandwomenforthepurposeofallocatingpowers,duties,status,responsibilitiesandroleinanygivensocialcontext.Genderisaresultofsocializationintoamanorwomanrolewhichascribescertainbehavioursaccordingtosocio-culturalnormsforone’ssex[4].Accordingto[5],genderdealswiththesocialrelationshipbetweenmenandwomenandhowtheserelationshipsarenegotiatedintheproductionofgoodsandservices.ThesocialrelationshipbetweenmenandwomenwillplayoutandcomplementeachotherintheadoptionofimprovedoilpalmtechnologiessuchastheadoptionoftheTeneraoilpalmvarietywhichisahybridofthePisiferaandtheDuravarieties.Theconsiderationofgendersocio-economicattributesthereforebecomesimperative. 2.LiteratureReview Thissectionprovidesa reviewofrelatedliteratureongenderrelatedconcepts,genderinagricultureandsocioeconomicattributesofgenderandhowitinfluencestheadoptionofimprovedoilpalmproductiontechnologiesinNigeria 2.1TheConceptofGender Accordingto[6],theconceptofgenderincludestheexpectationsheldaboutthecharacteristics,aptitudesandlikelybehaviourofwomenandmen.Genderrolesandexpectationsarelearnedandcanchangeovertimeandvarywithinandbetweencultures.Systemsofsocialdifferentiationsuchaspoliticalstatus,class,ethnicity,physicalandmentaldisability,ageandmore,modifygenderroles[7].Theconceptofgenderisvitalbecause,appliedtosocialanalysis;itrevealshowwomen’ssubordinationormen’sdominationissociallyconstructed.Assuch,thesubordinationcanbechangedorendedUNESCO[6].Genderisnotbiologicallypredeterminednorisitfixedforever.Sexdescribesthebiologicaldifferencesbetweenmenandwomen,whichareuniversalanddeterminedatbirthandtechnicallydifferentfromgender. Gendersystemsareinstitutionalizedthrougheducationsystems,politicalandeconomicsystems,legislation,cultureandtraditions.Inutilizingagenderapproach,thefocusisnotonindividualwomenandmenbutonthesystemwhichdeterminesgenderrolesandresponsibilities,accesstoandcontroloverresources,anddecision-makingpotentials.Itisalsoimportanttoemphasizethattheconceptofgenderisnotinterchangeablewithwomen.Genderreferstobothwomenandmen,andtherelationsbetweenthem. 2.2TheConceptofAdoption Adoptionmeansthatapersondoessomethingdifferentlythanwhattheyhadpreviously(purchaseoruseanewproduct,acquireandperformanewbehavior,etc.)done.Thekeytoadoptionisthatthepersonmustperceivetheidea,behaviour,orproductasneworinnovative.Itisthroughthisthatdiffusionispossible[8].Adoptionofanewidea,behavior,orproduct(innovation)doesnothappensimultaneouslyinasocialsystem;ratheritisaprocesswherebysomepeoplearemoreapttoadopttheinnovationthanothers.Researchershavefoundthatpeoplewhoadoptaninnovationearlyhavedifferentcharacteristicsthanpeoplewhoadoptaninnovationlater.Whenpromotinganinnovationtoatargetpopulation,itisimportanttounderstandthecharacteristicsofthetargetpopulationthatwillhelporhinderadoptionoftheinnovation.Therearefiveestablishedadoptercategories,andwhilethemajorityofthegeneralpopulationtendstofallinthemiddlecategories,itisstillnecessarytounderstandthecharacteristicsofthetargetpopulation. 2.3GenderandTechnologyAdoption Inaddressingtheinfluenceofgenderintheadoptionofagriculturaltechnology,itispertinenttoconsiderthematerialfactorsthatcouldpossiblyinfluencegenderinmakingthedecisiontoadoptorrejectaninnovation.Genders’accesstopowerandauthority,andcontroloversuchfactorsmaydeterminetheextentofadoption.Suchmaterialfactorsasaccesstoland,creditfacility;accesstootherinputsasfertilizer,labourandextensioncontactarevitalintheadoptiondecision.Thefemininegender,mostoftenthannot,havelessaccesstothesematerialfactorscomparedtothemasculinegender.Accordingto[9],womeninNigeriaformanactiveandreservelabourforcebutrarelyownthemeansofproduction.Furthermore,[10]reportedthatmenandwomenmaizefarmersinGhanadonotenjoyequalaccesstolandandtoagriculturalextensionservices.Thissuggeststhatdisparityinthegenders’ownershipandaccesstotheseproductionresourcesmayrestrictadoptionofinnovationbythefemininegender. GenderrolesarecrucialforagriculturaldevelopmentandtheattainmentoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).Thedefinitionofgenderusedinthisresearchistheeconomic,social,political,andculturalattributesandopportunitiesassociatedwithbeingmanorwoman.ThisreviewalsousesthedefinitionintheGlobalMonitoringReport2007ongender,whichmeansequalaccesstothe“opportunitiesthatallowpeopletopursuealifeoftheirownchoosingandtoavoidextremedeprivationsinoutcomes,”highlightinggenderequalityinrights,resources,andvoice[11].Genderissuesmustbeaddressedindevelopmentstudiesforvariousandobviousreasons.First,genderdimensioniscrucialforeconomicreasonsandfromtheefficiencypointofview.Thisisespeciallytrueintheagriculturesector,wheregenderinequalitiesinaccesstoandcontroloverresourcesarepersistent,underminingasustainableandinclusivedevelopmentofthesector.Second,equityordistributionalissuesarerelatedtogenderdifferencesinoutcomes. 3.GenderSocio-economicAttributesandAdoptionofImprovedOilPalmTechnologies Socio-economiccharacteristicsexplaintheattributes(age,sex,householdsize,education,literacy,income,farmsize,landownership,maritalstatus,farmingexperienceetc)ofthefarmerthathaveinfluenceontheactivitiesofthefarmersintheirlocalenvironment.Asidesex,allotherattributesofthefarmerareacquireddirectlyorindirectlyandaresubjecttochangeovertime.Socio-economiccharacteristicslikeeducation,income,farmsize,landownershipandmaritalstatuspositsanindividualinaruralcommunityasresponsible,respectable,influentialandhasthepotentialsofbringingpositivechange.Examiningthesocioeconomiccharacteristicsoffarmersinaresearchgivestheresearcheraclearprofileanda betterperspectiveofthefarmersthatshouldnotbeneglectedaspossibleinfluentialfactors.Theybringtotheforethebackground,affiliations,dispositionsandorientationsofthefarmerswhoarethemajorfocusofagriculturalresearch.Socio-economiccharacteristicsinagenderstudywillpointoutareasofdisparityingenderissuesthatneedspecificattention. Insomeculture,womenarenotallowedtoownsomeinputresourcesasagainsttheirmencounterparts.Accordingto[12],womeninArochukwuLocalGovernmentAreaofAbiaStatearenotallowedtoownoilpalmplantation.Thisthereforepreventsmostlywomeninthatareafromowninglandandotherresources.Thissinglesocialmisjudgmentleadstothelooseofvaluablecontributionsandbenefitsthatwouldhaveaccruedtothecommunityifbothmenandwomenaregivenequalfreedomtoexerciseandexploretheirpotentials. 3.1AgeandAdoption Ageisanimportantattributeofthefarmer.Agemeasuredbythenumberofyearsfrombirthafarmerhasspentalive,influencesthelevelofthoughtanddisposition.Anolderfarmerisexpectedtohavemoreexperienceinfarmingandthereforethepossibilityofacceptinginnovation.Theageofthefarmerwillalsodisposehimtoacquisitionofmaterialresources.Intheirreport,[13]revealedthatthemeanageofthefarmersinoilpalmproductioninNigeriawasabout45yearsandexplainedthatthismaybeattributedtothefactthatoilpalmproductionislandintensiveandonlyolderfarmersmayhaveacquiredthesizeoflandneededforitsproduction.Inseparatereports[14]and[15]confirmedthatNigerianfarmersarewithintheagebracketof40-60years.Thiscouldadverselyaffectthelevelofoutputbecauseoftheinactivenatureoftheelderly.Theyfurthernotedthatyoungfarmersareneededonfarmsbecauseagriculturalproductionisenergydemandingespeciallyoilpalmproduction.[16],assertedthattheabilityofafarmertotakeriskandbeinnovativedecreaseswithage.Thisimpliesthatyoungerfarmersbyvirtueoftheirstrengthandabilitywillhavehigherprospectforincreasedadoptionoftechnologyandenhancedproductivity. Accordingto[17],agricultureinAfricaisdominatedbyoldpeoplewhomheexplainedlackenthusiasmandstrengthwhichresultstothemengagingintraditionalsubsistencecultivationthatgivespoorreturns. Furthermore,[18]and[19]agreedthatmoreoftheyoungerwomenthanthemenareinvolvedinagriculturalproductioninthesoutheastagro-ecologicalzoneofNigeria.Thestudyfurtherexplainedthat52%ofmenand13.40%ofwomenwereabove59yearsofage.Thisimpliesthatmajorityofthewomenwereintheireconomicproductiveageandassuchwillbestrongerandeffectiveintheadoptionofinnovations.Inaddition,sincetheabilityofafarmertotakeriskandbeinnovativedecreasewithageasassertedby[16],thewomenfarmersaccordingtotheirstudywillbemoreinnovativeinadoptingimprovedagriculturaltechnology.Onthecontrarytothefindingsabove,[20]and[21]foundthatthereisnosignificantrelationshipbetweentheageoftherespondentsandthelevelofadoptionofimprovedoilpalmproductionpractices.Theyexplainedfurtherthatageisapersonalcharacteristicoffarmersanddoesnotinfluencetherejectionoradoptionofimprovedoilpalmproductionpracticesinthestudyarea. 3.2SexandAdoption Sexidentifiesthestatusofthefarmerasmaleorfemale.Theassertionthatwomenaremoreactiveinagricultureandtheirinvolvementhavegeneratedsignificantrecognitionisnotindoubt[9].Inagreement,[22]reportedintheirstudythat72%ofwomenweremoreinvolvedinoilpalmproductioninthe study area of their research,while[23]observedthatwomenrecordedhigheradoptionofcassavaproductiontechnologiesthanmeninhisstudy. Itisimportanttonotethatinvolvementofmenandwomendependsontheagriculturalactivitiesinvolved.Thisideaissupportedby[24]whopositedthatimpactofsexontechnologyadoptionistechnologyspecific.Agriculturalactivitiesthatrequiremorephysicalenergywillhavemoremaleparticipationasagainstwomen.Accordingto[20],foundthatmoremalefarmerswereinvolvedinoilpalmproductioninhisstudy.Thistheyassertedwasbecauseofthedrudgerynatureandphysicalenergydemand,andlargefinancialinvestmentneededforplantationestablishmentwhichcoulddiscouragewomen.Inseparatereports[25]andAde[26]foundthatmenaremoreinvolvedinagricultureintheirstudyareainWesternNigeria.Similarly,[27]reportedthatsexdistributionofpalmoilprocessorsinthestudyareashowedthatoutofthe120respondents,98(81.7%)weremales,while22(18.3%)werefemales.Thistheyexplainedcouldbeattributedtothefactthatmajorityoftherespondentsusedthetraditionalmethodofprocessingwhichismorestrenuousthanthemodernmethod. Furthermore,[28]indicatedthatfemalesarelesslikelytoadoptimprovedtechnologies.Ontheotherhand,[21]foundthatsexhasnosignificantinfluenceontheadoptionofimprovedoilpalmproductionpractices.Thisfindingcontradictstheearlierthoughts.Beingamaleorfemalethereforedoesnotinfluencetheadoptionbehaviourofthefarmer.Theadoptionofimprovedagriculturaltechnologiesbymenorwomenwillthereforedependonthematureofthetechnologiesinvolved.Technologiesthatarestrenuousrequiremoreenergyandaredrudgeryinnaturewillbeadoptedmostlybymenwhiletechnologiesthatareofthereversenaturemayhavemorefemalesadoptingsuchtechnologies.Therefore,theadoptionofimprovedoilpalmtechnologiesmayfavourmenbecauseofthephysicalstrengthinvolvedintheactivitiesandthehugefinancialrequirementstobeginanoilpalmbusinessinNigeria. 3.3LevelofEducationandAdoption Educationasaprocessofacquiringknowledgethroughteaching,learning,observationandsocializationisanimportantattributethatinfluencestheactivitiesandbehaviourofindividuals.Adoptionisacontinuousprocesswhichbeginswiththeinitialknowledgeofaninnovationtotheconstantapplicationoftheinnovationineverydaylife.Assuch,theextentorlevelofeducationoftherespondentwillhaveinfluenceontheadoptionbehaviourofthefarmer(positivelyornegatively).Therefore,theeducationlevelofthemaleorfemalefarmerplayssignificantroleinhisorheradoptionbehaviour.Also,[21]foundthatlevelofeducationhassignificantinfluenceonthelevelofadoptionofimprovedoilpalmproductionpractices.Thistheyexplainedimpliesthatfarmerswithhigherlevelofeducationarelikelytofullyadopttheimprovedoilpalmtechnologiesthanthosewithloweducationalstatus. Inapositiveproposition,[29]highlightedthesignificantroleoffarmers’educationinraisingfarmingefficiencyinEthiopiaandBangladesh.However,thereissomeagreementinliteraturethateducationsignificantlyinfluencesadoptionoftechnologicalinnovationsinagriculture[30]and[31].Thesefindingsarecontrarytothefindingof[32]thateducationhasnosignificantimpactonfarmers’efficiencyinIndonesia.Inasimilarreport,[19]reportedthat90.90and92.10%offemaleandmalesrespectivelyhadoneformofeducationintheareaoftheresearch.Further,thestudyreportedthattheaverageyearsspentbythefarmersinformaleducationforfemaleandmalefarmerswere7.33and8.10yearsrespectively.Thismeansthatthoughthefarmergroupsgenerallywerenotwelleducated,themalefarmerswhoaremoreeducatedthantheirfemalecounterparts,areexpectedtohavemoreabilityandwillingnesstoadoptimprovedagriculturaltechnologies.Ontheotherhand,[33]reportedthat51.30%and17.50%ofmaleandfemalesrespectivelyhadformaleducationwhile31.30%and40.00%ofmenandwomendidnothaveformaleducationintheirstudy.InthetraditionalNigeriansociety,menareaccordedwiththeopportunityofgoingtoschoolasagainsttheirfemalecounterparts.Thisisasaresultofthebeliefthatthemaleswillcontinuethefamilylineage.Theyounggirlsoftendropoutofschooltohelpinthefarm,engageintradingandotherventurestohelpthefamilyfinance.Mostoften,theyaremarriedofftoeasetheburdenofresponsibilitiesontheparents.Closelyrelatedtothisistheincidenceofgirl-childpregnancy.Theoccurrenceofthiswillaffectthesociallifeoftheyounggirlparticularlyhereducation.Menthereforeacquiremoreeducationandwillcertainlybemoredisposedtotheadoptionofimprovedtechnologies. 3.4FarmSizeandAdoption Differentfactorsdeterminetheadoptionofdifferentagriculturalinnovationsandtechnologies.Muchempiricaladoptionliteraturefocusesonfarmsizeasthefirstandprobablythemostimportantdeterminant[34];[35];[36];[37];[38];[39];[40];[41];[42]and[43].Farmsizedefinesthefarmlandavailableforfarmerstofarm.Farmsizecanaffectandinturnbeaffectedbytheotherfactorsinfluencingadoption.Theeffectoffarmsizeonadoptioncouldbepositive,negativeorneutral[44]. InmostAfricanruralcommunities,farmlandsaremeasuredusinglocalmeasurements.Mostoftenfarmsizeisapportionedinplotswithinthelocalcommunities.Incitiesandsub-urbanareas,farmsizeismeasuredinacreandhectare.Culturally,anindividualthathaslargeplotsoffarmsizeisrevered,honouredandrespectedbecauseitisconsideredasastatussymbolwithintheculturalsetting.Itisbelievedthatthelargerthefarmsizeofanindividual,themorethepossibilityofacceptinginnovationsthatcouldincreaseproductivity.Accordingto[45],largefarmsizeintermsofhectaresandlabouraresignificantlyrelatedtofarmer’sutilizationofimprovedfarmpracticesapplicabletotheirfarmenterprise. According totheirreport,[46]categorizedfarmerswhohadameanof2hectaresoffarmlandassubsistence.Theirfindingisinline[47]whoreportedthatvastmajorityoffarmersworkatnearsubsistencelevelofproductivity.Thistheyexplainedwilloftenhavenegativeeffectsonfarmers’accesstocreditsduetolackofeconomicsofscale.Further,[48];[49];[50];[51]and[52]foundfarmsizetobepositivelyrelatedtoadoption. Ontheotherhand,[53]and[35]foundnegativerelationshipbetweenadoptionandfarmsizewhile[54]foundthattherelationshipbetweenfarmsizeandadoptionisaneutralone.Withsmallfarms,ithasbeenarguedthatlargefixedcostsbecomeaconstrainttotechnologyadoption[49],especiallyifthetechnologyrequiresasubstantialamountofinitialset-upcost.Inthisregard,[50]notedthatonlylargerfarmswilladoptthesekindsofinnovations.Withsometechnologies,thespeedofadoptionisdifferentforsmall-andlarge-scalefarmerswhichiscriticalforpolicymakersandimplementers.Accordingto[55],farmsizehasanegativeandsignificanteffectontechnicalefficiency,implyingthatfarmerswhohaverelativelylargefarmsarelessefficientrelativetotheircounterpartswithsmallerfarms.Thisresultthoughiscontrary,however,totheexpectationsthatlargefarmsbenefitfromincreasedeconomiesofscaleandhencearemoreefficient.Farmsizemayactasaproxyforothersocio-economicindicatorssuchasaccesstocreditbecausethelargerfarmhas,themorethecollateralvalue.Fromthegenderpointofview,therestrictionofaccessandownershiptolandonwomen,affectsadoptionofimprovedagriculturaltechnologiesandagriculturaloutputingeneral.Theproblemarisesfromthetraditionallandownershipstructurewhichisdominatedbyinheritanceasthemajorsourceofownership.Womenwhobyvirtueofsocialconstructandtradition,donotinheritlandinmostAfricansocietyaredisadvantaged. TheFAOreportof2010indicatedthatinheritanceisstillthemostcommonsystemtoobtainlandinmostdevelopingcountries.FAO’sgenderandlandrightsdatabaseof2010revealedtheexistenceofgenderdisparitiesinlandholdingsinallregionsoftheworld.Maliisacaseinpointwhereonly3%ofthecountry’slandownersarewomen,whereaslessthan2%oftheavailablelandworldwideisownedbywomen[56].Further,[56]confirmedthatlandrightsinmanycommunitiesaregovernedbybothstatutoryandcustomarylaws.ManyofthesetraditionalcustomarylawsespeciallyinNigeriaandAfricaingeneraldenywomenrighttoland.Bytradition,meninheritlandandwomengainuserrightsthroughtheirrelationshipwithamalerelative[57].Theimplicationisthatmenwiththeadvantageofhavingmorefarmsizewillconsideradoptionofimprovedtechnologiesmorethanwomen. 3.5LevelofIncomeandAdoption Accesstofinanceisjustasimportantasaccesstolandinagriculturaldevelopment[58].Incomeandfinanceopportunitieshavebeenwidelydocumentedasanimportantstrategyforovercomingconstraintsfacedbytheruralfarmhouseholdsinmanydevelopingcountries[59];[60];Barrett,[61]and[62]. Incomeisexpectedtoprovidefarmerswithliquidcapitalforpurchasingproductivityenhancinginputssuchasimprovedseedandfertilizers[58].Accordingto[63],fundisamajorthreattotheadoptionofoilpalmproduction.Incomeplaysanimportantroleintheadoptionofimprovedagriculturaltechnology.Accesstofundandcreditfacilityfacilitatetheprocurementofagriculturalinputs,labourengagementanddailyfarmexpenses.Inhisreport,[64]identifiedcreditfacilitiesprovisionasoneofthemostimportantpriorityareastobeconsideredinrepositioningtheoilpalmproductionsectorforsustainableeconomicdevelopment.Creditfacilitiessuchasgrantsandlowinterestloans,subsidizedinputprovision,landacquisitionfacilitationandprocurementofequipmentandmachineriesforprocessingareincentivesforincreasedproduction. Thereisastrongassociationbetweenthegenderofthehouseholdheadandadoptionoftechnologicalrecommendations[65].Insomecountriesfemale-headedhouseholdsarediscriminatedagainstbycreditinstitutions,andassuchtheyareunabletofinanceyield-raisingtechnologies,leadingtolowadoptionrates[66].Thereisclearlyacaseforimprovingcurrentsmallholdercreditsystemstoensurethatwiderspectrumsofsmallholdersareabletohaveaccesstoincome,especiallyfemale-headedhouseholds[66].Thismay,incertaincases,necessitatedesigningcreditpackagesthataretailoredtomeettheneedsofspecifictargetgroups[66]. Accordingto[67],incomecreditfacilitiesavailabletofarmersaffectexpenditureontheuseofmechanicalequipment,workingcapitalaswellasimprovedseeds.Thisexplainsthatcreditandfundsintheformofincometothefarmerimprovestheexpenditureoutlayofthefarmerespeciallyintheprocurementofneededfarminputs. …
A Review On Gender Socio-Economic Attributes And The Adoption Of Improved Oil Palm Production Technologies In The Southern Region Of Nigeria Read More »
