Abstract:

Cognitive health is crucial to learning, productivity, and overall well-being across the lifetime. Exercise is one of the most accessible and promising lifestyle factors that can enhance long-term brain resilience and improve cognitive performance, according to mounting data. This review summarizes recent research on the effects of several exercise modalities, including resistance training, high-intensity interval training, aerobic training, and mind-body techniques, on key cognitive domains, including processing speed, executive function, attention, and memory. Acute effects are discussed with emphasis on the immediate improvements in attention and processing efficiency following single bouts of exercise, alongside moderating factors such as age, fitness level, and exercise intensity. Chronic effects are examined across developmental stages, highlighting how regular physical activity supports neural development in children, optimizes performance in adults, and mitigates age-related cognitive decline in older populations. The neuronal, circulatory, metabolic, inflammatory, and psychological mechanisms that underlie these advantages are examined. Differential effects in certain populations, such as those with moderate cognitive impairment or chronic conditions, are assessed along with comparative data across modalities. Key methodological limitations, such as varied protocols and uneven cognitive testing methods, are addressed. Practical implications for education, clinical practice, and public health settings are offered, along with future research goals focused on standardized outcome measures, dosage response elucidation, and individualized exercise prescriptions. Overall, the data suggest that exercise is a potent, scalable method for improving cognitive performance and fostering brain health throughout life.