Inthe1960s,Nigeria’sagriculturalsectorwasthemostimportantintermsofitscontributionstodomesticproduction,employmentandforeignexchangeearnings.Nigeriabeforethediscoveryofcrudeoilinthe1950’swastheworld’slargestproducerofoilpalm(Elaeisguineensis)apositionnowoccupiedbyMalaysia[1].Oilpalmproductionwasoneofthevitalareasofagriculturethatattractedtheforeignexchangeearningscontributing48percentofGDPbetween1980and1982andfallingto45percentbytheendofthe1990’s[2].However,thefigureofoilpalm’scontributiondeclinedtoabout40percentofGDPand2percentoftotalexportearningsbytheendofthe1970s.Thisdwindlingtrendintheoilpalmproductionisalwaysattributedtothediscoveryofcrudeoilandgovernmentsshiftofattentionfromtheagriculturalsectortocrudeoilexploration.Thisassertioncannotbe overlooked but drawsattentionto the fact that otherareasthatarepotentialfactorstoimprovethe dwindlingtrend, needstobeaddressed.Areassuchastheefficiencyoftheextensionservicedelivery,laginthedisseminationofinnovationsfromtheresearchstationstothefarmers,genderissuesinagricultureandproperfarmereducationnecessaryfortheadoptionofimprovedtechnologiesareimportanttobeaddressed.Thisreviewthereforedrawsattentiontogendersocio-economicattributesthatareimportanttobeconsideredintheadoptionprocessinagricultureespeciallyasitrelatestooilpalmproduction.

Oilpalmproductionpassesthroughactivitiesthatrequiretheeffortsandcollaborationofbothmenandwomenformaximumoutput.Theroleofbothgenderscouldbeeithercomplimentaryorsupportivetoachievehighproductivity.Accordingto[3],genderisasociallyconstructedroledifferencesbetweenmenandwomenforthepurposeofallocatingpowers,duties,status,responsibilitiesandroleinanygivensocialcontext.Genderisaresultofsocializationintoamanorwomanrolewhichascribescertainbehavioursaccordingtosocio-culturalnormsforone’ssex[4].Accordingto[5],genderdealswiththesocialrelationshipbetweenmenandwomenandhowtheserelationshipsarenegotiatedintheproductionofgoodsandservices.ThesocialrelationshipbetweenmenandwomenwillplayoutandcomplementeachotherintheadoptionofimprovedoilpalmtechnologiessuchastheadoptionoftheTeneraoilpalmvarietywhichisahybridofthePisiferaandtheDuravarieties.Theconsiderationofgendersocio-economicattributesthereforebecomesimperative.

2.LiteratureReview

Thissectionprovidesa reviewofrelatedliteratureongenderrelatedconcepts,genderinagricultureandsocioeconomicattributesofgenderandhowitinfluencestheadoptionofimprovedoilpalmproductiontechnologiesinNigeria

2.1TheConceptofGender

Accordingto[6],theconceptofgenderincludestheexpectationsheldaboutthecharacteristics,aptitudesandlikelybehaviourofwomenandmen.Genderrolesandexpectationsarelearnedandcanchangeovertimeandvarywithinandbetweencultures.Systemsofsocialdifferentiationsuchaspoliticalstatus,class,ethnicity,physicalandmentaldisability,ageandmore,modifygenderroles[7].Theconceptofgenderisvitalbecause,appliedtosocialanalysis;itrevealshowwomen’ssubordinationormen’sdominationissociallyconstructed.Assuch,thesubordinationcanbechangedorendedUNESCO[6].Genderisnotbiologicallypredeterminednorisitfixedforever.Sexdescribesthebiologicaldifferencesbetweenmenandwomen,whichareuniversalanddeterminedatbirthandtechnicallydifferentfromgender.

Gendersystemsareinstitutionalizedthrougheducationsystems,politicalandeconomicsystems,legislation,cultureandtraditions.Inutilizingagenderapproach,thefocusisnotonindividualwomenandmenbutonthesystemwhichdeterminesgenderrolesandresponsibilities,accesstoandcontroloverresources,anddecision-makingpotentials.Itisalsoimportanttoemphasizethattheconceptofgenderisnotinterchangeablewithwomen.Genderreferstobothwomenandmen,andtherelationsbetweenthem.

2.2TheConceptofAdoption

Adoptionmeansthatapersondoessomethingdifferentlythanwhattheyhadpreviously(purchaseoruseanewproduct,acquireandperformanewbehavior,etc.)done.Thekeytoadoptionisthatthepersonmustperceivetheidea,behaviour,orproductasneworinnovative.Itisthroughthisthatdiffusionispossible[8].Adoptionofanewidea,behavior,orproduct(innovation)doesnothappensimultaneouslyinasocialsystem;ratheritisaprocesswherebysomepeoplearemoreapttoadopttheinnovationthanothers.Researchershavefoundthatpeoplewhoadoptaninnovationearlyhavedifferentcharacteristicsthanpeoplewhoadoptaninnovationlater.Whenpromotinganinnovationtoatargetpopulation,itisimportanttounderstandthecharacteristicsofthetargetpopulationthatwillhelporhinderadoptionoftheinnovation.Therearefiveestablishedadoptercategories,andwhilethemajorityofthegeneralpopulationtendstofallinthemiddlecategories,itisstillnecessarytounderstandthecharacteristicsofthetargetpopulation.

2.3GenderandTechnologyAdoption

Inaddressingtheinfluenceofgenderintheadoptionofagriculturaltechnology,itispertinenttoconsiderthematerialfactorsthatcouldpossiblyinfluencegenderinmakingthedecisiontoadoptorrejectaninnovation.Genders’accesstopowerandauthority,andcontroloversuchfactorsmaydeterminetheextentofadoption.Suchmaterialfactorsasaccesstoland,creditfacility;accesstootherinputsasfertilizer,labourandextensioncontactarevitalintheadoptiondecision.Thefemininegender,mostoftenthannot,havelessaccesstothesematerialfactorscomparedtothemasculinegender.Accordingto[9],womeninNigeriaformanactiveandreservelabourforcebutrarelyownthemeansofproduction.Furthermore,[10]reportedthatmenandwomenmaizefarmersinGhanadonotenjoyequalaccesstolandandtoagriculturalextensionservices.Thissuggeststhatdisparityinthegenders’ownershipandaccesstotheseproductionresourcesmayrestrictadoptionofinnovationbythefemininegender.

GenderrolesarecrucialforagriculturaldevelopmentandtheattainmentoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).Thedefinitionofgenderusedinthisresearchistheeconomic,social,political,andculturalattributesandopportunitiesassociatedwithbeingmanorwoman.ThisreviewalsousesthedefinitionintheGlobalMonitoringReport2007ongender,whichmeansequalaccesstothe“opportunitiesthatallowpeopletopursuealifeoftheirownchoosingandtoavoidextremedeprivationsinoutcomes,”highlightinggenderequalityinrights,resources,andvoice[11].Genderissuesmustbeaddressedindevelopmentstudiesforvariousandobviousreasons.First,genderdimensioniscrucialforeconomicreasonsandfromtheefficiencypointofview.Thisisespeciallytrueintheagriculturesector,wheregenderinequalitiesinaccesstoandcontroloverresourcesarepersistent,underminingasustainableandinclusivedevelopmentofthesector.Second,equityordistributionalissuesarerelatedtogenderdifferencesinoutcomes.

3.GenderSocio-economicAttributesandAdoptionofImprovedOilPalmTechnologies

Socio-economiccharacteristicsexplaintheattributes(age,sex,householdsize,education,literacy,income,farmsize,landownership,maritalstatus,farmingexperienceetc)ofthefarmerthathaveinfluenceontheactivitiesofthefarmersintheirlocalenvironment.Asidesex,allotherattributesofthefarmerareacquireddirectlyorindirectlyandaresubjecttochangeovertime.Socio-economiccharacteristicslikeeducation,income,farmsize,landownershipandmaritalstatuspositsanindividualinaruralcommunityasresponsible,respectable,influentialandhasthepotentialsofbringingpositivechange.Examiningthesocioeconomiccharacteristicsoffarmersinaresearchgivestheresearcheraclearprofileanda betterperspectiveofthefarmersthatshouldnotbeneglectedaspossibleinfluentialfactors.Theybringtotheforethebackground,affiliations,dispositionsandorientationsofthefarmerswhoarethemajorfocusofagriculturalresearch.Socio-economiccharacteristicsinagenderstudywillpointoutareasofdisparityingenderissuesthatneedspecificattention.

Insomeculture,womenarenotallowedtoownsomeinputresourcesasagainsttheirmencounterparts.Accordingto[12],womeninArochukwuLocalGovernmentAreaofAbiaStatearenotallowedtoownoilpalmplantation.Thisthereforepreventsmostlywomeninthatareafromowninglandandotherresources.Thissinglesocialmisjudgmentleadstothelooseofvaluablecontributionsandbenefitsthatwouldhaveaccruedtothecommunityifbothmenandwomenaregivenequalfreedomtoexerciseandexploretheirpotentials.

3.1AgeandAdoption

Ageisanimportantattributeofthefarmer.Agemeasuredbythenumberofyearsfrombirthafarmerhasspentalive,influencesthelevelofthoughtanddisposition.Anolderfarmerisexpectedtohavemoreexperienceinfarmingandthereforethepossibilityofacceptinginnovation.Theageofthefarmerwillalsodisposehimtoacquisitionofmaterialresources.Intheirreport,[13]revealedthatthemeanageofthefarmersinoilpalmproductioninNigeriawasabout45yearsandexplainedthatthismaybeattributedtothefactthatoilpalmproductionislandintensiveandonlyolderfarmersmayhaveacquiredthesizeoflandneededforitsproduction.Inseparatereports[14]and[15]confirmedthatNigerianfarmersarewithintheagebracketof40-60years.Thiscouldadverselyaffectthelevelofoutputbecauseoftheinactivenatureoftheelderly.Theyfurthernotedthatyoungfarmersareneededonfarmsbecauseagriculturalproductionisenergydemandingespeciallyoilpalmproduction.[16],assertedthattheabilityofafarmertotakeriskandbeinnovativedecreaseswithage.Thisimpliesthatyoungerfarmersbyvirtueoftheirstrengthandabilitywillhavehigherprospectforincreasedadoptionoftechnologyandenhancedproductivity.

Accordingto[17],agricultureinAfricaisdominatedbyoldpeoplewhomheexplainedlackenthusiasmandstrengthwhichresultstothemengagingintraditionalsubsistencecultivationthatgivespoorreturns. Furthermore,[18]and[19]agreedthatmoreoftheyoungerwomenthanthemenareinvolvedinagriculturalproductioninthesoutheastagro-ecologicalzoneofNigeria.Thestudyfurtherexplainedthat52%ofmenand13.40%ofwomenwereabove59yearsofage.Thisimpliesthatmajorityofthewomenwereintheireconomicproductiveageandassuchwillbestrongerandeffectiveintheadoptionofinnovations.Inaddition,sincetheabilityofafarmertotakeriskandbeinnovativedecreasewithageasassertedby[16],thewomenfarmersaccordingtotheirstudywillbemoreinnovativeinadoptingimprovedagriculturaltechnology.Onthecontrarytothefindingsabove,[20]and[21]foundthatthereisnosignificantrelationshipbetweentheageoftherespondentsandthelevelofadoptionofimprovedoilpalmproductionpractices.Theyexplainedfurtherthatageisapersonalcharacteristicoffarmersanddoesnotinfluencetherejectionoradoptionofimprovedoilpalmproductionpracticesinthestudyarea.

3.2SexandAdoption

Sexidentifiesthestatusofthefarmerasmaleorfemale.Theassertionthatwomenaremoreactiveinagricultureandtheirinvolvementhavegeneratedsignificantrecognitionisnotindoubt[9].Inagreement,[22]reportedintheirstudythat72%ofwomenweremoreinvolvedinoilpalmproductioninthe study area of their research,while[23]observedthatwomenrecordedhigheradoptionofcassavaproductiontechnologiesthanmeninhisstudy.

Itisimportanttonotethatinvolvementofmenandwomendependsontheagriculturalactivitiesinvolved.Thisideaissupportedby[24]whopositedthatimpactofsexontechnologyadoptionistechnologyspecific.Agriculturalactivitiesthatrequiremorephysicalenergywillhavemoremaleparticipationasagainstwomen.Accordingto[20],foundthatmoremalefarmerswereinvolvedinoilpalmproductioninhisstudy.Thistheyassertedwasbecauseofthedrudgerynatureandphysicalenergydemand,andlargefinancialinvestmentneededforplantationestablishmentwhichcoulddiscouragewomen.Inseparatereports[25]andAde[26]foundthatmenaremoreinvolvedinagricultureintheirstudyareainWesternNigeria.Similarly,[27]reportedthatsexdistributionofpalmoilprocessorsinthestudyareashowedthatoutofthe120respondents,98(81.7%)weremales,while22(18.3%)werefemales.Thistheyexplainedcouldbeattributedtothefactthatmajorityoftherespondentsusedthetraditionalmethodofprocessingwhichismorestrenuousthanthemodernmethod.

Furthermore,[28]indicatedthatfemalesarelesslikelytoadoptimprovedtechnologies.Ontheotherhand,[21]foundthatsexhasnosignificantinfluenceontheadoptionofimprovedoilpalmproductionpractices.Thisfindingcontradictstheearlierthoughts.Beingamaleorfemalethereforedoesnotinfluencetheadoptionbehaviourofthefarmer.Theadoptionofimprovedagriculturaltechnologiesbymenorwomenwillthereforedependonthematureofthetechnologiesinvolved.Technologiesthatarestrenuousrequiremoreenergyandaredrudgeryinnaturewillbeadoptedmostlybymenwhiletechnologiesthatareofthereversenaturemayhavemorefemalesadoptingsuchtechnologies.Therefore,theadoptionofimprovedoilpalmtechnologiesmayfavourmenbecauseofthephysicalstrengthinvolvedintheactivitiesandthehugefinancialrequirementstobeginanoilpalmbusinessinNigeria.

3.3LevelofEducationandAdoption

Educationasaprocessofacquiringknowledgethroughteaching,learning,observationandsocializationisanimportantattributethatinfluencestheactivitiesandbehaviourofindividuals.Adoptionisacontinuousprocesswhichbeginswiththeinitialknowledgeofaninnovationtotheconstantapplicationoftheinnovationineverydaylife.Assuch,theextentorlevelofeducationoftherespondentwillhaveinfluenceontheadoptionbehaviourofthefarmer(positivelyornegatively).Therefore,theeducationlevelofthemaleorfemalefarmerplayssignificantroleinhisorheradoptionbehaviour.Also,[21]foundthatlevelofeducationhassignificantinfluenceonthelevelofadoptionofimprovedoilpalmproductionpractices.Thistheyexplainedimpliesthatfarmerswithhigherlevelofeducationarelikelytofullyadopttheimprovedoilpalmtechnologiesthanthosewithloweducationalstatus.

Inapositiveproposition,[29]highlightedthesignificantroleoffarmers’educationinraisingfarmingefficiencyinEthiopiaandBangladesh.However,thereissomeagreementinliteraturethateducationsignificantlyinfluencesadoptionoftechnologicalinnovationsinagriculture[30]and[31].Thesefindingsarecontrarytothefindingof[32]thateducationhasnosignificantimpactonfarmers’efficiencyinIndonesia.Inasimilarreport,[19]reportedthat90.90and92.10%offemaleandmalesrespectivelyhadoneformofeducationintheareaoftheresearch.Further,thestudyreportedthattheaverageyearsspentbythefarmersinformaleducationforfemaleandmalefarmerswere7.33and8.10yearsrespectively.Thismeansthatthoughthefarmergroupsgenerallywerenotwelleducated,themalefarmerswhoaremoreeducatedthantheirfemalecounterparts,areexpectedtohavemoreabilityandwillingnesstoadoptimprovedagriculturaltechnologies.Ontheotherhand,[33]reportedthat51.30%and17.50%ofmaleandfemalesrespectivelyhadformaleducationwhile31.30%and40.00%ofmenandwomendidnothaveformaleducationintheirstudy.InthetraditionalNigeriansociety,menareaccordedwiththeopportunityofgoingtoschoolasagainsttheirfemalecounterparts.Thisisasaresultofthebeliefthatthemaleswillcontinuethefamilylineage.Theyounggirlsoftendropoutofschooltohelpinthefarm,engageintradingandotherventurestohelpthefamilyfinance.Mostoften,theyaremarriedofftoeasetheburdenofresponsibilitiesontheparents.Closelyrelatedtothisistheincidenceofgirl-childpregnancy.Theoccurrenceofthiswillaffectthesociallifeoftheyounggirlparticularlyhereducation.Menthereforeacquiremoreeducationandwillcertainlybemoredisposedtotheadoptionofimprovedtechnologies.

3.4FarmSizeandAdoption

Differentfactorsdeterminetheadoptionofdifferentagriculturalinnovationsandtechnologies.Muchempiricaladoptionliteraturefocusesonfarmsizeasthefirstandprobablythemostimportantdeterminant[34];[35];[36];[37];[38];[39];[40];[41];[42]and[43].Farmsizedefinesthefarmlandavailableforfarmerstofarm.Farmsizecanaffectandinturnbeaffectedbytheotherfactorsinfluencingadoption.Theeffectoffarmsizeonadoptioncouldbepositive,negativeorneutral[44].

InmostAfricanruralcommunities,farmlandsaremeasuredusinglocalmeasurements.Mostoftenfarmsizeisapportionedinplotswithinthelocalcommunities.Incitiesandsub-urbanareas,farmsizeismeasuredinacreandhectare.Culturally,anindividualthathaslargeplotsoffarmsizeisrevered,honouredandrespectedbecauseitisconsideredasastatussymbolwithintheculturalsetting.Itisbelievedthatthelargerthefarmsizeofanindividual,themorethepossibilityofacceptinginnovationsthatcouldincreaseproductivity.Accordingto[45],largefarmsizeintermsofhectaresandlabouraresignificantlyrelatedtofarmer’sutilizationofimprovedfarmpracticesapplicabletotheirfarmenterprise.

According totheirreport,[46]categorizedfarmerswhohadameanof2hectaresoffarmlandassubsistence.Theirfindingisinline[47]whoreportedthatvastmajorityoffarmersworkatnearsubsistencelevelofproductivity.Thistheyexplainedwilloftenhavenegativeeffectsonfarmers’accesstocreditsduetolackofeconomicsofscale.Further,[48];[49];[50];[51]and[52]foundfarmsizetobepositivelyrelatedtoadoption.

Ontheotherhand,[53]and[35]foundnegativerelationshipbetweenadoptionandfarmsizewhile[54]foundthattherelationshipbetweenfarmsizeandadoptionisaneutralone.Withsmallfarms,ithasbeenarguedthatlargefixedcostsbecomeaconstrainttotechnologyadoption[49],especiallyifthetechnologyrequiresasubstantialamountofinitialset-upcost.Inthisregard,[50]notedthatonlylargerfarmswilladoptthesekindsofinnovations.Withsometechnologies,thespeedofadoptionisdifferentforsmall-andlarge-scalefarmerswhichiscriticalforpolicymakersandimplementers.Accordingto[55],farmsizehasanegativeandsignificanteffectontechnicalefficiency,implyingthatfarmerswhohaverelativelylargefarmsarelessefficientrelativetotheircounterpartswithsmallerfarms.Thisresultthoughiscontrary,however,totheexpectationsthatlargefarmsbenefitfromincreasedeconomiesofscaleandhencearemoreefficient.Farmsizemayactasaproxyforothersocio-economicindicatorssuchasaccesstocreditbecausethelargerfarmhas,themorethecollateralvalue.Fromthegenderpointofview,therestrictionofaccessandownershiptolandonwomen,affectsadoptionofimprovedagriculturaltechnologiesandagriculturaloutputingeneral.Theproblemarisesfromthetraditionallandownershipstructurewhichisdominatedbyinheritanceasthemajorsourceofownership.Womenwhobyvirtueofsocialconstructandtradition,donotinheritlandinmostAfricansocietyaredisadvantaged.

TheFAOreportof2010indicatedthatinheritanceisstillthemostcommonsystemtoobtainlandinmostdevelopingcountries.FAO’sgenderandlandrightsdatabaseof2010revealedtheexistenceofgenderdisparitiesinlandholdingsinallregionsoftheworld.Maliisacaseinpointwhereonly3%ofthecountry’slandownersarewomen,whereaslessthan2%oftheavailablelandworldwideisownedbywomen[56].Further,[56]confirmedthatlandrightsinmanycommunitiesaregovernedbybothstatutoryandcustomarylaws.ManyofthesetraditionalcustomarylawsespeciallyinNigeriaandAfricaingeneraldenywomenrighttoland.Bytradition,meninheritlandandwomengainuserrightsthroughtheirrelationshipwithamalerelative[57].Theimplicationisthatmenwiththeadvantageofhavingmorefarmsizewillconsideradoptionofimprovedtechnologiesmorethanwomen.

3.5LevelofIncomeandAdoption

Accesstofinanceisjustasimportantasaccesstolandinagriculturaldevelopment[58].Incomeandfinanceopportunitieshavebeenwidelydocumentedasanimportantstrategyforovercomingconstraintsfacedbytheruralfarmhouseholdsinmanydevelopingcountries[59];[60];Barrett,[61]and[62].

Incomeisexpectedtoprovidefarmerswithliquidcapitalforpurchasingproductivityenhancinginputssuchasimprovedseedandfertilizers[58].Accordingto[63],fundisamajorthreattotheadoptionofoilpalmproduction.Incomeplaysanimportantroleintheadoptionofimprovedagriculturaltechnology.Accesstofundandcreditfacilityfacilitatetheprocurementofagriculturalinputs,labourengagementanddailyfarmexpenses.Inhisreport,[64]identifiedcreditfacilitiesprovisionasoneofthemostimportantpriorityareastobeconsideredinrepositioningtheoilpalmproductionsectorforsustainableeconomicdevelopment.Creditfacilitiessuchasgrantsandlowinterestloans,subsidizedinputprovision,landacquisitionfacilitationandprocurementofequipmentandmachineriesforprocessingareincentivesforincreasedproduction.

Thereisastrongassociationbetweenthegenderofthehouseholdheadandadoptionoftechnologicalrecommendations[65].Insomecountriesfemale-headedhouseholdsarediscriminatedagainstbycreditinstitutions,andassuchtheyareunabletofinanceyield-raisingtechnologies,leadingtolowadoptionrates[66].Thereisclearlyacaseforimprovingcurrentsmallholdercreditsystemstoensurethatwiderspectrumsofsmallholdersareabletohaveaccesstoincome,especiallyfemale-headedhouseholds[66].Thismay,incertaincases,necessitatedesigningcreditpackagesthataretailoredtomeettheneedsofspecifictargetgroups[66].

Accordingto[67],incomecreditfacilitiesavailabletofarmersaffectexpenditureontheuseofmechanicalequipment,workingcapitalaswellasimprovedseeds.Thisexplainsthatcreditandfundsintheformofincometothefarmerimprovestheexpenditureoutlayofthefarmerespeciallyintheprocurementofneededfarminputs.

3.6ExtensionContactandAdoption

Agriculturalextensionandruraleducationhavebeenemphasizedbydevelopmentexpertsascrucialinachievingagriculturaldevelopment,povertyreduction,andfoodsecurity[68];[69];[70];[71]and[72].However,empiricalevidenceshowsmixedresultsintermsoftherelevance,cost-effectiveness,andequitydimensionsofdifferentapproachesofagriculturalextensionserviceprovision[72]and[73].Ononehand,ratesofreturnandtheeconomiccontributionofagriculturalextensionareestimatedtobehigh[74];[68];[75].

InUganda,[76]estimatesan8–49%rateofreturnintheagriculturalextensionreformwhile[69]showthatreceivingatleastoneextensionvisitperyearreducesthelikelihoodofbeingpoorby10percentinEthiopia.Ontheotherhand,extensionsystemsanddeliverymethodsinmanydevelopingcountrieshavebeencritiquedasineffectiveinrespondingtothedemandsandtechnologicalchallengesofvarioustypesofclientsandinreachingpoormenandwomenfarmers[77];[73]and[70].

Accordingto[78],agriculturalextensionisamodebywhichthelatestinformationiscommunicatedtothefarmingcommunity.Theeffectiveextensionservicescanhelpintheadoptionofnewagriculturaltechnologieswhichcanleadtohighercropyieldsandmorehouseholdincomes.Inaddition,theagriculturalextensionservicescanhelpinreducingpovertylevelsandensurehouseholdfoodsecurityespeciallyamongsmallandresourcepoorfarmers.Similarly,[28]foundthatExtensionserviceprovision,intheformofadvicereceived,isasignificantfactorthatexplainswhetherfarmersadoptfertilizerorimprovedseed,andtherateofuseoftheseinputs.Otherextensionvariables,suchasfrequencyofvisit,accesstoradio,orattendanceatcommunitymeetingswerenotsignificant.Amajorprobleminsub-SaharanAfricaisthatyearafteryearextensionworkerswhoarehardlyaffordedin-servicetraining,andlooselylinkedtoresearch,continuetodisseminatethesamemessagesrepeatedlytothesameaudience[66].

Asituationhasconsequentlyarisenwherethedisseminatedmessagestothemajorityoftheextensionaudience,havebecometechnicallyredundantandobsolete[66].Additionalproblemisthatmostextensionservicestendtofocusonthewell-resourced,wealthierfarmersandperceivefarmersassimplyagentsofchange[66].Thissituationresultstomonotonyoftheinformationprovidedandleadtodiminishedinterestofthefarmersinhavingcontactswithextensionofficers.

Thegenderequitydimensionofagriculturalextensionserviceprovisionisanaspectthatiswidelyaddressedintheliterature.Fromtheglobalsurveyof115countriesbyFAOinthe1980stothemicro-studiesbyWorldBankandIFPRIin2010,numerousstudiesshowaccesstoextensionservicesislowerforwomenascomparedwithmen[79];[80]and[28].Whenotherfactorsarecontrolledfor,theresultsaremixedintermsofwhetherwomenaredisadvantagedornotinaccesstoextensionservices.Accordingto[28]fewerwomen(20%)werevisitedbydevelopmentagentscomparedtotheirmalecounterparts(30%)inEthiopia.Theresultsshowacleardifferencebetweenfemaleandmalesinaccesstovisitsandadvicefromdevelopmentagents(maleareabout5percentmorelikelytobevisitedbydevelopmentagentscomparedtofemale),aswellasotherchannelsofinformation.Malearemorelikelytoattendcommunitymeetingsandvisitdemonstrationplotsorresearchcentersmorethanwomen.InNigeria,thestoryisnotdifferent.Thelevelorreligiouspractices,traditionandthedominanceofthemalefolkinpoliticsandotherareasofadministrationinthecountryinhibitthelevelofaccesstoextensionservicesbywomencomparedtomen.

3.7YearsofFarmingExperienceandAdoption

Theyearsofexperienceofthefarmeriscountedasadvantageintheadoptionprocess.Experiencedisposesthefarmertodifferentagriculturaltechniques,useofmaterialinputs,extensionandfarmnetworksandmaturityinhandlingandovercomingdifficultsituations.Theexperienceofmenandwomeninthefarmingprocessisvitalintheadoptionofimprovedagriculturaltechnology.Variousresearchershavecommentedontheyearsofexperienceofmenandwomenintheirdifferentfindings.Inaresearchfinding,[19]reportedthattheaveragefarmingexperiencesforbothmaleandfemalefarmerswere30.09and24.22yearsrespectivelyinSoutheastagro-ecologicalzoneofNigeria.Thestudyfurtherrevealedthat70.50%offemalesand55.40%ofmalesrespectivelyhadfarmingexperiencesofbetween11to30years.Similarly,[81]positedthatmenhadmorefarmingexperiencesthanwomen.Theyreportedthat70%ofthewomenhavebeeninvolvedinfarmingfor15yearsorless.Thiscouldbeduetothefactthatwomenspentpartoftheirproductiveyearsinchildbearingwhichwillnotonlylimitwomen’slevelofinvolvementinagriculturalproductionbutalsolimittheirincomeastheywillnotbeabletoworkduringthechildbearingperiods.

4.TheWayForwardinMainstreamingGenderinNigerianAgriculture

Gendermainstreamingisagenderconceptwithanapproachthatensuresthatwomenandmenequallyparticipateineveryaspectofaprogramorprojectbothasbeneficiariesanddecisionmakers.Thisrequiresthatattentionisgiventogenderperspectivesasanintegralpartofallactivitiesacrossallprogrammes.Itinvolvesmakinggenderperspectives–whatwomenandmendoandtheresourcesanddecision-makingprocessestheyhaveaccessto–morecentraltoallpolicydevelopment,research,advocacy,implementationandmonitoringofnormsandstandards,planning,implementationandmonitoringofprojects.

ThisreviewmakesinputsasthewayforwardinmainstreaminggenderintheagriculturesectorinNigeriathroughthefollowingprocesses:

4.1TheProcessofDevelopingNationalAgriculturalDevelopmentPoliciesandPlans

Policywhichisoftenseenasaprogramofactionsorsetofprinciplesinsettingadevelopmentagendatogetherwithplanningwhichbridgesthegapfromwhereweareandwherewewanttobethroughchartingfuturecourseofactionsareveryvitalineverydevelopmentprocess.Bothgeneralandspecificruralagriculturesectorpoliciesshouldfromthedrawingboardembracegenderbyspecifyingtherolesofmenandwomen.Equalparticipationofmenandwomenintheselectionofcommitteemembersandorconstitutingaboardtodraftpolicyforthesectorshouldbeencouraged.InNigeria,agricultureisafamilybusinessinvolvesallmembersofahousehold(menandwomen)inclusiveandinmostcasesmoreparticipationfromthewomenthatthemenespeciallyintheruralareas.Tothateffect,policiesaimedatsustainablydevelopingthesectorshouldbeallembracingandgendersensitive.

4.2TheProcessofBudgetingandAgriculturalFinancing

Gender-responsivebudgetingaimsatmainstreaminggenderintopublicfinance.Gender-responsivebudgetingdoesnotimplyhavingseparatebudgetsforwomenandwomenbutconnotesageneralbudgetthatareplanned,approved,executed,monitored,andauditedinagender-sensitiveway.TheagriculturesectorinNigeriaisanareathatrequiresmassivefundingespeciallywiththeagriculturaltransformationagendaoftheFederalGovernment.Theagendalayingemphasisoncommercialagricultureandamorearticulatestrategytoreachouttothefarmerspromptlyrequiresanallembracingapproachthatwillrecognizegenderissues.Areasofimpedimentstoaccessingagriculturalfinancesforbothmenandwomenshouldbejettisoned.

4.3ProcessofEmployment

Globally,womenandgirlsareunderrepresentedinalmostallsectorsofdevelopmentincludingeducationandemploymentopportunitiesdespitethefactthatwomenconstitutemorethanhalfoftheworld’spopulation[82].Employmentinmostcountriesischaracterizedwithalopsidedapproachweremoremenorwomenhavemoreorlessadvantageincertainareasofopportunity.InNigeria,toforgeameaningfulagriculturaldevelopmentprocessemploymentindifferentareasofthesectorshouldbegendersensitive.ParticularlytomentionistheimbalanceacrossthestatesoftheFederalintheemploymentofextensionagents.MostAgriculturalDevelopmentProject(ADP)staffsaremenwithastaggeringnumberofwomenintheirmist.ThiswillnotmakeforgoodextensionservicedeliveryespeciallyintheNorthernpartofthecountrywheremenhaverestrictionsinenteringsomehouseholdsbecauseofreligiouspractices.

4.4AbolitionofCulturalLandInheritancePractices

Acrossthetraditions,culturesandcustomsofthedifferentethnicgroupsinthecountry,landownershipisbyinheritance.AsidetheHausacustomwhichallowsawomantoinheritfrombothparentsandmostoftenhalfoftheshareofthemalesons,allothercustomsareskewedagainstwomen.Thecustomarylandownershipstructureensuresthatallareasoflandholding,womenareexcludedaslandpassesfromthefathertothemalechildren.Anunmarrieddaughterhasarighttoliveinherfather’shouse,butisnotallowedtocultivatethelandasherown.Landasthemostimportantfactorinagriculturalproductionanddevelopmentrequiresthatitsacquisitionbelegislatedupontogiveequalopportunitytobothmenandwomentohavelandforagriculturalproduction.The1999constitutionoftheFederalRepublicofNigeriachapter2,section43providesthat“everycitizenofNigeriashallhavetherighttoacquireandownimmovablepropertyanywhereinNigeria”.Theacquisitionoflandasprovidedbytheconstitutionisarightandaprivilege.

5. Conclusions

Thisreviewexaminedbymakingtechnicalanalysisoftheviewsofdifferentauthorspresentedingenderdisaggregateddataofthesocio-economicattributesofgenderasitrelatestotheadoptionofimprovedagriculturaltechnologies.Thestudieslookedatgenderdifferentialsintheadoptionofvarioustechnologiesandinnovationsinagriculture.Therewerevariationsinthefindingsofthesestudieswithregardstoinputs,crops,areaofthestudy,technologyexamined,aswellastheresearchdesigns,samplingframe,samplesize,qualityofdatacollection,toolsandanalyticaltechniquesadopted.However,thestudiesunanimouslyrecognizedandemphasizedareasofgenderimbalanceinvariousaspectsofagriculturewhichneedtobeaddressedforincreasedoutputandefficiency.

Intheirreports,[83];[84];[85]and[86]recognizedtheheterogeneousnatureofwomenfarmersfromdifferentculturalbackground,orientationandreligion.Accordingtothem,thereisneedtocollectdifferentindicatorsofgenderforarobustanalysisorpropertargetingofbeneficiariesandendusers.Thisimpliesthatdatacollectedongenderindicators(socioeconomicfactors),methodsofdatacollectionandanalysistheyaresubjectedtoareveryvitalanddeterminestoalargeextenttheresults.

Therelevanceofgenderrolesinagriculture,generallifeactivitiesandprojectdesigncannotbeover-emphasized.Basically,indesigningandimplementingpublicprojectsmeantforthebenefitofthemasses,takingagendersensitiveapproachallowsfortherudimentaryunderstandingofgenderrolesintheprojects,identifyareasofgenderimbalanceandtherootcausesofexistinginequalitiesifthereare,sothattheycanbeaddressedintheprojectoractivitydesign.The review further identifiedtheshortandlongtermdifferentialneedsandprioritiesofmenandwomen and how toharmonizetheseneedsforefficiencyandgrowth.Therefore,nationalgovernmentatalllevelsshouldmainstreamgenderinalladministrativeactivities–politicsandpolicy,economic,socialculturalandenvironmentalissuesforthesustainabledevelopmentofthesociety.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT   

I acknowledge Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETfund), Nigeria for sponsoring the research from where this article was written.

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